square function and some sanity checks

0-source/Just.PreciseMath/DDMath.cs

@@ -12,31 +12,18 @@ public static partial class DDMath
         return DoubleDouble.Abs(value);
     }
 
-    /// <summary>Returns the reciprocal with double-double precision.</summary>
+    /// <inheritdoc cref="DoubleDouble.Square"/>
-    /// <remarks>
+    [Pure]
-    /// Specializes scalar/DD division for a numerator of one, omitting only its
+    public static DoubleDouble Square(DoubleDouble value)
-    /// redundant numerator checks. The arithmetic sequence and boundary handling
+    {
-    /// are unchanged, preserving the high and low component bits of <c>1.0 / value</c>.
+        return DoubleDouble.Square(value);
-    /// Results are approximate, not guaranteed correctly rounded;
+    }
-    /// finite results are tested against a relative error bound of 2^-100 plus one
+
-    /// minimum binary64 subnormal. Precision decreases near underflow.
+    /// <inheritdoc cref="DoubleDouble.Reciprocal"/>
-    /// Signed zeros map to signed infinities, signed infinities to signed zeros,
-    /// and NaN to canonical NaN. Finite overflow produces signed infinity.
-    /// </remarks>
     [Pure]
     public static DoubleDouble Reciprocal(DoubleDouble value)
     {
-        const double one = 1.0;
+        return DoubleDouble.Reciprocal(value);
-        if (!DoubleDouble.IsFinite(value) || value._high == 0.0)
-        {
-            return new DoubleDouble(one / value._high);
-        }
-        if (!PreciseMathHelper.IsDivisionWithinFastRange(value._high))
-        {
-            return PreciseMathHelper.DivideBoundary(one, value);
-        }
-
-        return PreciseMathHelper.DivideScalarFinite(one, value);
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc cref="DoubleDouble.Cbrt"/>

0-source/Just.PreciseMath/DoubleDouble.Arithmetic.cs

@@ -6,6 +6,43 @@ public readonly partial struct DoubleDouble :
     IMultiplyOperators<DoubleDouble, double, DoubleDouble>,
     IDivisionOperators<DoubleDouble, double, DoubleDouble>
 {
+    /// <summary>Returns the square using a specialized double-double product.</summary>
+    /// <remarks>
+    /// Combines the equal cross terms before FMA accumulation, retaining low squared.
+    /// Results are approximate and may differ in low bits from value * value;
+    /// finite results are tested against 2^-100 relative error plus one minimum
+    /// binary64 subnormal, not a guarantee of correctly rounded components.
+    /// Either zero maps to positive zero, either infinity to positive infinity,
+    /// and NaN to canonical NaN. Uses the allocating multiplication fallback at
+    /// exponent boundaries. No performance improvement is guaranteed.
+    /// </remarks>
+    [Pure]
+    public static DoubleDouble Square(DoubleDouble value)
+    {
+        if (!IsFinite(value) || value._high == 0.0)
+        {
+            return new DoubleDouble(value._high * value._high);
+        }
+        if (!PreciseMathHelper.IsMultiplicationWithinFastRange(value._high, value._high))
+        {
+            return PreciseMathHelper.MultiplyBoundary(value, value);
+        }
+
+        (double product, double error) = PreciseMathHelper.TwoSquare(value._high);
+        // The guard bounds the high exponent to [-450, 450], so doubling high
+        // is exact and finite. FMA avoids rounding the cross product separately.
+        error = Math.FusedMultiplyAdd(value._high + value._high, value._low, error);
+        // As for multiplication, normalized input makes |error| < 4u*product;
+        // the positive high product is normal and the corrected sum is finite.
+        (double high, double low) = PreciseMathHelper.TwoQuickAdd(product, error);
+        // Incorporate low squared AFTER the cross term has been absorbed into
+        // high. Otherwise an exactly representable tail can round away before
+        // cancellation, e.g. (1 - 2^-54)^2 loses its 2^-108 residual.
+        low = Math.FusedMultiplyAdd(value._low, value._low, low);
+        (high, low) = PreciseMathHelper.TwoQuickAdd(high, low);
+        return new DoubleDouble(high, low == 0.0 ? 0.0 : low);
+    }
+
     /// <summary>Returns the operand unchanged.</summary>
     public static DoubleDouble operator +(DoubleDouble value)
     {

0-source/Just.PreciseMath/DoubleDouble.Formatting.cs

@@ -22,6 +22,37 @@ public readonly partial struct DoubleDouble : IFormattable
         return ToString(null, provider);
     }
 
+    /// <summary>Returns the exact decimal expansion of the stored value using invariant culture.</summary>
+    /// <remarks>
+    /// Uses allocating integer arithmetic, without rounding or scientific notation.
+    /// Omits unnecessary fractional zeros and preserves negative zero; nonfinite
+    /// values use NaN, Infinity, and -Infinity. Sparse pairs can require over a
+    /// thousand characters. Parse with invariant culture to recover the components;
+    /// this is an exact-value format, not a shortest-round-trip format.
+    /// </remarks>
+    public string ToStringExact()
+    {
+        if (!double.IsFinite(_high) || _high == 0.0)
+        {
+            return _high.ToString(CultureInfo.InvariantCulture);
+        }
+
+        (BigInteger numerator, BigInteger denominator) = ConversionFraction();
+        // A sum of binary64 values has a power-of-two denominator. Multiplying
+        // by the matching power of five makes an integer coefficient over 10^n.
+        int decimalPlaces = (int)(denominator.GetBitLength() - 1);
+        BigInteger coefficient = BigInteger.Abs(numerator) * BigInteger.Pow(5, decimalPlaces);
+        string digits = coefficient.ToString(CultureInfo.InvariantCulture);
+        int end = digits.Length;
+        while (decimalPlaces > 0 && digits[end - 1] == '0')
+        {
+            end--;
+            decimalPlaces--;
+        }
+        string sign = numerator.Sign < 0 ? "-" : string.Empty;
+        return sign + FormattingFixed(digits[..end], decimalPlaces, ".");
+    }
+
     /// <summary>
     /// Formats the exact component sum, rounding to nearest with ties to even.
     /// Supports G/g (significant digits, default 32; G0 also means 32), E/e

0-source/Just.PreciseMath/DoubleDouble.NumberBase.cs

@@ -5,6 +5,33 @@ public readonly partial struct DoubleDouble
     /// <summary>Gets the binary radix of the components.</summary>
     public static int Radix => 2;
 
+    /// <summary>Returns the reciprocal with double-double precision.</summary>
+    /// <remarks>
+    /// Specializes scalar/DD division for a numerator of one, omitting only its
+    /// redundant numerator checks. The arithmetic sequence and boundary handling
+    /// are unchanged, preserving the high and low component bits of <c>1.0 / value</c>.
+    /// Results are approximate, not guaranteed correctly rounded;
+    /// finite results are tested against a relative error bound of 2^-100 plus one
+    /// minimum binary64 subnormal. Precision decreases near underflow.
+    /// Signed zeros map to signed infinities, signed infinities to signed zeros,
+    /// and NaN to canonical NaN. Finite overflow produces signed infinity.
+    /// </remarks>
+    [Pure]
+    public static DoubleDouble Reciprocal(DoubleDouble value)
+    {
+        const double one = 1.0;
+        if (!DoubleDouble.IsFinite(value) || value._high == 0.0)
+        {
+            return new DoubleDouble(one / value._high);
+        }
+        if (!PreciseMathHelper.IsDivisionWithinFastRange(value._high))
+        {
+            return PreciseMathHelper.DivideBoundary(one, value);
+        }
+
+        return PreciseMathHelper.DivideScalarFinite(one, value);
+    }
+
     /// <summary>Returns the absolute value, preserving both components and canonicalizing NaN.</summary>
     public static DoubleDouble Abs(DoubleDouble value)
     {

0-source/Just.PreciseMath/DoubleDouble.RootFunctions.cs

@@ -244,7 +244,8 @@ public readonly partial struct DoubleDouble : IRootFunctions<DoubleDouble>
 
     /// <summary>Returns the nonnegative square root with double-double precision.</summary>
     /// <remarks>
-    /// Uses power-of-two scaling and an FMA-based Newton correction. Results are
+    /// Uses power-of-two scaling and an FMA-based Newton correction. An exponent-
+    /// tracked correction retains sparse lows endangered by downscaling. Results are
     /// approximate, not guaranteed correctly rounded; finite positive inputs are
     /// tested against a relative error bound of 2^-100 across the binary64 range.
     /// Signed zero and positive infinity are preserved. Negative nonzero values
@@ -264,11 +265,19 @@ public readonly partial struct DoubleDouble : IRootFunctions<DoubleDouble>
 
         // Choose an even exponent, rounding negative odd exponents down too.
         // For positive finite normalized inputs, exponent is in [-1074, 1022]
-        // and the scaled high is in [1, 4). Scaling the high is exact; any
+        // and the scaled high is in [1, 4). Scaling the high is exact.
-        // underflow in a very sparse low is far below the relative error bound.
         int exponent = Math.ILogB(value.High) & ~1;
         double high = Math.ScaleB(value.High, -exponent);
         double low = Math.ScaleB(value.Low, -exponent);
+        // Dividing the scaled low by 2*estimate (in [2, 4]) can round at the
+        // subnormal floor before output rescaling restores its magnitude. In
+        // that sparse domain, refine high alone and apply the original low with
+        // separate exponents afterward. Never add both the scaled and original low.
+        bool separateLow = exponent > 0 && value.Low != 0.0 && Math.Abs(low) < Math.ScaleB(1.0, -1020);
+        if (separateLow)
+        {
+            low = 0.0;
+        }
         double estimate = Math.Sqrt(high);
 
         // Estimate is in [1, 2]. FMA avoids rounding its square before
@@ -282,7 +291,10 @@ public readonly partial struct DoubleDouble : IRootFunctions<DoubleDouble>
         // Normalize again to canonicalize a zero low, including any underflow
         // of an exceptionally sparse correction during rescaling.
         int rootExponent = exponent / 2;
-        return DoubleDouble.FromComponents(Math.ScaleB(root.High, rootExponent), Math.ScaleB(root.Low, rootExponent));
+        root = DoubleDouble.FromComponents(Math.ScaleB(root.High, rootExponent), Math.ScaleB(root.Low, rootExponent));
+        // In this branch |originalLow/originalHigh| < 2^-1020. The omitted
+        // quadratic term is negligible even relative to the low correction.
+        return separateLow ? root + RootLowCorrection(value, root, 2) : root;
     }
 
     /// <summary>Returns the reciprocal square root with double-double precision.</summary>

1-tests/Just.PreciseMath.Tests/DoubleDoubleArithmeticTests.cs

@@ -978,6 +978,114 @@ public class DoubleDoubleArithmeticTests
         }
     }
 
+    [Theory]
+    [InlineData(-450)]
+    [InlineData(0)]
+    [InlineData(450)]
+    public void SquareRetainsExactCrossAndLowSquaredTerms(int exponent)
+    {
+        // (h - h*2^-54)^2 = h^2 - h^2*2^-53 + h^2*2^-108.
+        // (h + h*2^-53)^2 = h^2 + h^2*2^-52 + h^2*2^-106.
+        // Both sums fit exactly in two components, including fast-range endpoints.
+        double high = Math.ScaleB(1.0, exponent);
+        double highSquared = Math.ScaleB(1.0, 2 * exponent);
+        DoubleDouble below = DoubleDouble.FromComponents(high, -Math.ScaleB(1.0, exponent - 54));
+        DoubleDouble above = DoubleDouble.FromComponents(high, Math.ScaleB(1.0, exponent - 53));
+        foreach (double sign in new[] { -1.0, 1.0 })
+        {
+            CheckBoundary(DoubleDouble.Square(sign * below), Math.BitDecrement(highSquared), Math.ScaleB(1.0, (2 * exponent) - 108));
+            CheckBoundary(DDMath.Square(sign * above), Math.BitIncrement(highSquared), Math.ScaleB(1.0, (2 * exponent) - 106));
+        }
+    }
+
+    [Fact]
+    public void SquareHandlesSpecialValuesAndExactBinaryPowers()
+    {
+        foreach (double value in new[] { 0.0, -0.0, double.NaN, double.PositiveInfinity, double.NegativeInfinity })
+        {
+            CheckBits(DoubleDouble.Square(new DoubleDouble(value)), value * value);
+            CheckBits(DDMath.Square(new DoubleDouble(value)), value * value);
+        }
+        for (int exponent = -1074; exponent <= 1023; exponent++)
+        {
+            // A binary power squared needs only exponent arithmetic, not a DD oracle.
+            double high = Math.ScaleB(1.0, exponent);
+            double expected = Math.ScaleB(1.0, 2 * exponent);
+            CheckBits(DoubleDouble.Square(new DoubleDouble(high)), expected);
+            CheckBits(DoubleDouble.Square(new DoubleDouble(-high)), expected);
+        }
+    }
+
+    [Fact]
+    public void SquareMeetsExactRationalBoundsAcrossRangesAndDispatchTransitions()
+    {
+        Random random = new(57721);
+        for (int exponent = -1074; exponent <= 1023; exponent++)
+        {
+            double high = Math.ScaleB(1.0 + random.NextDouble(), exponent);
+            double low = Math.ScaleB(random.NextDouble(), exponent - 53);
+            foreach (double residual in new[] { 0.0, low, -low, double.Epsilon, -double.Epsilon })
+            {
+                AssertSquare(DoubleDouble.FromComponents(high, residual));
+            }
+            double power = Math.ScaleB(1.0, exponent);
+            AssertSquare(new DoubleDouble(Math.BitDecrement(power)));
+            AssertSquare(new DoubleDouble(power));
+            AssertSquare(new DoubleDouble(Math.BitIncrement(power)));
+        }
+    }
+
+    [Fact]
+    public void SquareUsesTheCompleteInputForOverflowAndUnderflowClassification()
+    {
+        // Neighborhoods of sqrt(overflow midpoint) and sqrt(epsilon/2).
+        // The exact integer oracle, not Math.Sqrt or another DD operation,
+        // decides which side of each threshold the actual stored input lies on.
+        double overflowHigh = Math.ScaleB(1.0, 512);
+        // At low=-2^457, the square exceeds the midpoint by low^2;
+        // the next more-negative low puts it strictly below the midpoint.
+        double overflowLow = -Math.ScaleB(1.0, 457);
+        double underflowHigh = Math.ScaleB(Math.Sqrt(0.5), -537);
+        double underflowLow = Math.ScaleB(1.0, -591);
+        foreach (double high in new[] { Math.BitDecrement(overflowHigh), overflowHigh, Math.BitIncrement(overflowHigh) })
+        {
+            foreach (double low in new[] { Math.BitDecrement(overflowLow), overflowLow, Math.BitIncrement(overflowLow), 0.0 })
+            {
+                AssertSquare(DoubleDouble.FromComponents(high, low));
+            }
+        }
+        foreach (double high in new[] { Math.BitDecrement(underflowHigh), underflowHigh, Math.BitIncrement(underflowHigh) })
+        {
+            foreach (double low in new[] { -underflowLow, 0.0, underflowLow })
+            {
+                AssertSquare(DoubleDouble.FromComponents(high, low));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static void AssertSquare(DoubleDouble value)
+    {
+        BigInteger input = Units(value);
+        BigInteger numerator = input * input;
+        BigInteger denominator = BigInteger.One << 1074;
+        BigInteger overflow = Units(double.MaxValue) + Units(Math.ScaleB(1.0, 970));
+        DoubleDouble actual = DoubleDouble.Square(value);
+        DoubleDouble.IsCanonical(actual).ShouldBeTrue();
+        DoubleDouble.IsNegative(actual).ShouldBeFalse();
+        if (numerator >= overflow * denominator)
+        {
+            CheckBits(actual, double.PositiveInfinity);
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            AssertRelative(actual, numerator, denominator);
+            // The absolute error floor must not hide a wrong zero/nonzero result.
+            DoubleDouble.IsZero(actual).ShouldBe((numerator << 1) <= denominator);
+        }
+        CheckBoundary(DoubleDouble.Square(-value), actual.High, actual.Low);
+        CheckBoundary(DDMath.Square(value), actual.High, actual.Low);
+    }
+
     private static (double[] Scalars, DoubleDouble[] Values) ScalarArithmeticCompatibilityCases()
     {
         List<double> scalars = [0.0, -0.0, 1.0, -1.0, 2.0, -2.0, 3.0, -3.0, 100.0, -100.0,

1-tests/Just.PreciseMath.Tests/DoubleDoubleFormattingTests.cs

@@ -4,6 +4,79 @@ namespace Just.PreciseMath.Tests;
 
 public class DoubleDoubleFormattingTests
 {
+    [Theory]
+    [InlineData(1.25, 0.0, "1.25")]
+    [InlineData(-1.25, 0.0, "-1.25")]
+    [InlineData(1000.0, 0.0, "1000")]
+    [InlineData(1.0, 5.551115123125783e-17, "1.000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625")]
+    [InlineData(9007199254740992.0, 1.0, "9007199254740993")]
+    public void ExactFormattingPreservesTheCompleteDyadicValue(double high, double low, string expected)
+    {
+        // Exact binary fractions: the nonzero fractional low is 2^-54.
+        DoubleDouble value = DoubleDouble.FromComponents(high, low);
+        value.ToStringExact().ShouldBe(expected);
+    }
+
+    [Fact]
+    public void ExactFormattingUsesInvariantSpecialSymbolsAndPreservesZeroSigns()
+    {
+        CultureInfo original = CultureInfo.CurrentCulture;
+        try
+        {
+            CultureInfo.CurrentCulture = CultureInfo.GetCultureInfo("fr-FR");
+            new DoubleDouble(-1.25).ToStringExact().ShouldBe("-1.25");
+            DoubleDouble[] values = [DoubleDouble.Zero, DoubleDouble.NegativeZero,
+                DoubleDouble.NaN, DoubleDouble.PositiveInfinity, DoubleDouble.NegativeInfinity];
+            string[] expected = ["0", "-0", "NaN", "Infinity", "-Infinity"];
+            for (int i = 0; i < values.Length; i++)
+            {
+                string text = values[i].ToStringExact();
+                text.ShouldBe(expected[i]);
+                DoubleDouble parsed = DoubleDouble.Parse(text, CultureInfo.InvariantCulture);
+                BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(parsed.High).ShouldBe(BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(values[i].High));
+                BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(parsed.Low).ShouldBe(0L);
+            }
+        }
+        finally
+        {
+            CultureInfo.CurrentCulture = original;
+        }
+    }
+
+    [Fact]
+    public void ExactFormattingPreservesSparsePairsBeyondTheStandardPrecisionLimit()
+    {
+        DoubleDouble[] values = [new(double.Epsilon), new(double.MaxValue), DoubleDouble.Pi,
+            DoubleDouble.FromComponents(1.0, double.Epsilon),
+            DoubleDouble.FromComponents(1.0, -double.Epsilon),
+            DoubleDouble.FromComponents(double.MaxValue, double.Epsilon),
+            DoubleDouble.FromComponents(double.MaxValue, -double.Epsilon),
+            DoubleDouble.FromComponents(double.MaxValue, Math.BitDecrement(Math.ScaleB(1.0, 970)))];
+        foreach (DoubleDouble value in values)
+        {
+            AssertExactText(value);
+            AssertExactText(-value);
+        }
+        DoubleDouble.FromComponents(1.0, double.Epsilon).ToStringExact().Length.ShouldBeGreaterThan(999);
+    }
+
+    [Fact]
+    public void ExactFormattingMatchesIndependentIntegerValuesAcrossEveryExponent()
+    {
+        Random random = new(271828);
+        for (int exponent = -1074; exponent <= 1023; exponent++)
+        {
+            double high = Math.ScaleB(1.0 + random.NextDouble(), exponent);
+            double denseLow = Math.ScaleB(random.NextDouble(), exponent - 53);
+            foreach (double low in new[] { 0.0, denseLow, -denseLow, double.Epsilon, -double.Epsilon })
+            {
+                DoubleDouble value = DoubleDouble.FromComponents(high, low);
+                AssertExactText(value);
+                AssertExactText(-value);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     [Theory]
     [InlineData("G0")]
     [InlineData("g0")]
@@ -138,4 +211,40 @@ public class DoubleDoubleFormattingTests
     {
         Should.Throw<FormatException>(() => DoubleDouble.One.ToString(format, CultureInfo.InvariantCulture));
     }
+
+    private static void AssertExactText(DoubleDouble value)
+    {
+        string text = value.ToStringExact();
+        text.Length.ShouldBeLessThanOrEqualTo(2048);
+        text.ShouldNotContain("E");
+        text.ShouldNotContain("e");
+        int point = text.IndexOf('.', StringComparison.Ordinal);
+        int places = point < 0 ? 0 : text.Length - point - 1;
+        if (point >= 0)
+        {
+            text.ShouldNotEndWith("0");
+            text.ShouldNotEndWith(".");
+        }
+        string digits = point < 0 ? text : text.Remove(point, 1);
+        BigInteger coefficient = BigInteger.Parse(digits, CultureInfo.InvariantCulture);
+        // Independently decode the input as integer multiples of 2^-1074 and
+        // compare with the printed integer coefficient / 10^places exactly.
+        BigInteger units = ExactFormattingUnits(value.High) + ExactFormattingUnits(value.Low);
+        (coefficient << 1074).ShouldBe(units * BigInteger.Pow(10, places));
+        DoubleDouble parsed = DoubleDouble.Parse(text, CultureInfo.InvariantCulture);
+        BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(parsed.High).ShouldBe(BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(value.High));
+        BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(parsed.Low).ShouldBe(BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(value.Low));
+    }
+
+    private static BigInteger ExactFormattingUnits(double value)
+    {
+        long bits = BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(value);
+        int exponent = (int)((bits >> 52) & 0x7ff);
+        BigInteger significand = bits & 0xfffffffffffffL;
+        if (exponent != 0)
+        {
+            significand = (significand + (BigInteger.One << 52)) << (exponent - 1);
+        }
+        return bits < 0 ? -significand : significand;
+    }
 }

1-tests/Just.PreciseMath.Tests/PreciseMathSqrtTests.cs

@@ -202,6 +202,83 @@ public class PreciseMathSqrtTests
         }
     }
 
+    [Theory]
+    [InlineData(-1.0)]
+    [InlineData(1.0)]
+    public void ScalingPreservesRepresentableSparseRootCorrections(double sign)
+    {
+        // sqrt(2^1000 + d) = 2^500 + d/2^501 + O(d^2/2^1500).
+        // Scaling d=+/-2^-174 down by 2^1000 erases it, but the root's
+        // +/-2^-675 low is representable. Prove its rounding interval exactly.
+        DoubleDouble input = DoubleDouble.FromComponents(Math.ScaleB(1.0, 1000), Math.ScaleB(sign, -174));
+        AssertSparseRoot(input, Math.ScaleB(1.0, 500), Math.ScaleB(sign, -675));
+    }
+
+    [Fact]
+    public void SparseRootCorrectionsSurviveScalingAndCorrectionDivisionBoundaries()
+    {
+        // Exact squares with both even and odd high exponents. Include scaled
+        // lows on both sides of the separate-correction dispatch, subnormal
+        // scaled lows, fully erased scaled lows, and subnormal output lows.
+        foreach (int exponent in new[] { 0, 2, 100, 1000, 1022 })
+        {
+            foreach (double rootMantissa in new[] { 1.0, 1.5 })
+            {
+                double high = Math.ScaleB(rootMantissa * rootMantissa, exponent);
+                double rootHigh = Math.ScaleB(rootMantissa, exponent / 2);
+                foreach (int gap in new[] { -1019, -1020, -1021, -1074, -1075, -1174 })
+                {
+                    double low = Math.ScaleB(1.0, exponent + gap);
+                    double rootLow = Math.ScaleB(low, -(exponent / 2)) / (2.0 * rootMantissa);
+                    if (rootLow == 0.0)
+                    {
+                        continue; // This matrix targets representable nonzero corrections.
+                    }
+                    foreach (double sign in new[] { -1.0, 1.0 })
+                    {
+                        // AssertSparseRoot independently proves this candidate's
+                        // rounding interval; the first-order formula is not an oracle.
+                        AssertSparseRoot(DoubleDouble.FromComponents(high, sign * low), rootHigh, sign * rootLow);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    [Fact]
+    public void SparseRootDispatchNeighborsRetainBothSignsWithoutDoubleCounting()
+    {
+        // With high=2^1000, lows around 2^-20 scale to the dispatch at 2^-1020.
+        // Keep the predicted output normal so candidate scaling is exact.
+        double threshold = Math.ScaleB(1.0, -20);
+        foreach (double low in new[] { Math.BitDecrement(threshold), threshold, Math.BitIncrement(threshold) })
+        {
+            foreach (double sign in new[] { -1.0, 1.0 })
+            {
+                DoubleDouble input = DoubleDouble.FromComponents(Math.ScaleB(1.0, 1000), sign * low);
+                AssertSparseRoot(input, Math.ScaleB(1.0, 500), Math.ScaleB(sign * low, -501));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static void AssertSparseRoot(DoubleDouble input, double high, double low)
+    {
+        BigInteger x = (Units(input.High) + Units(input.Low)) << 1074;
+        BigInteger center = Units(high) + Units(low);
+        BigInteger previous = Units(high) + Units(Math.BitDecrement(low));
+        BigInteger following = Units(high) + Units(Math.BitIncrement(low));
+        // Strict bounds avoid relying on a tie rule or a rounded sqrt oracle.
+        ((previous + center) * (previous + center) < (x << 2)).ShouldBeTrue();
+        ((center + following) * (center + following) > (x << 2)).ShouldBeTrue();
+        DoubleDouble actual = DoubleDouble.Sqrt(input);
+        actual.High.ShouldBe(high);
+        BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(actual.Low).ShouldBe(BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(low));
+        DoubleDouble facade = DDMath.Sqrt(input);
+        BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(facade.High).ShouldBe(BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(actual.High));
+        BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(facade.Low).ShouldBe(BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(actual.Low));
+        AssertSqrtBound(input, actual);
+    }
+
     private static void AssertSqrtBound(DoubleDouble input, DoubleDouble actual)
     {
         DoubleDouble.IsFinite(actual).ShouldBeTrue();

2-benchmarks/Just.PreciseMath.Benchmarks/ArithmeticBenchmarks.cs

@@ -87,6 +87,18 @@ public class ArithmeticBenchmarks
         return _doubleDoubleLeft * _doubleDoubleRight;
     }
 
+    [Benchmark(Baseline = true), BenchmarkCategory("Squaring")]
+    public DoubleDouble DoubleDoubleSquareViaMultiply()
+    {
+        return _doubleDoubleLeft * _doubleDoubleLeft;
+    }
+
+    [Benchmark, BenchmarkCategory("Squaring")]
+    public DoubleDouble DoubleDoubleSquare()
+    {
+        return DoubleDouble.Square(_doubleDoubleLeft);
+    }
+
     [Benchmark(Baseline = true), BenchmarkCategory("Division")]
     public double DoubleDivide()
     {

README.md

@@ -109,6 +109,15 @@ The `DDMath` static class provides:
 - `Abs(DoubleDouble)`: preserves both components, maps either signed zero to
   positive zero and either infinity to positive infinity, and returns canonical NaN.
   It shares the existing `DoubleDouble.Abs` implementation.
+- `Square(DoubleDouble)`: forwards to the specialized `DoubleDouble.Square` kernel.
+  It combines the equal cross terms with FMA, normalizes, then incorporates the
+  low-component square without losing selected exactly representable tails.
+  Either signed zero maps to positive zero, either infinity to positive infinity,
+  and NaN to canonical NaN. It shares multiplication's allocating boundary fallback
+  and tested `2^-100` relative error plus one minimum binary64 subnormal bound.
+  Results can differ in low bits from `value * value`; neither route is universally
+  correctly rounded. No speedup has been measured, and existing kernels have not
+  been rewritten to use it.
 - `Reciprocal(DoubleDouble)`: returns exactly the same high and low component bits
   as `1.0 / value`. It specializes scalar/DD division for a numerator of one,
   omitting redundant numerator checks and sharing the finite scalar-numerator kernel,
@@ -118,7 +127,11 @@ The `DDMath` static class provides:
   No speedup over scalar/DD division has been measured.
 - `Sqrt(DoubleDouble)`: uses power-of-two scaling and an FMA-based Newton correction
   to retain extended precision, including for subnormal inputs, without squaring
-  an unscaled estimate near the exponent limits. Signed zero and positive infinity
+  an unscaled estimate near the exponent limits. Sparse lows endangered by input
+  scaling or correction division are applied separately with tracked exponents:
+  for example, `sqrt((2^1000, 2^-174))` retains the low component `2^-675`.
+  This exceptional correction can reach the allocating boundary machinery;
+  ordinary inputs retain the original scaled correction path. Signed zero and positive infinity
   are preserved; negative nonzero inputs and NaN return canonical NaN.
 - `InvSqrt(DoubleDouble)`: computes the reciprocal square root with power-of-two
   scaling and a compensated Newton step, avoiding double-double division and its
@@ -195,6 +208,7 @@ The `DDMath` static class provides:
 using Just.PreciseMath;
 
 DoubleDouble root = DoubleDouble.Sqrt(new DoubleDouble(2.0));
+DoubleDouble square = DoubleDouble.Square(root);
 DoubleDouble inverseRoot = DoubleDouble.InvSqrt(new DoubleDouble(2.0));
 DoubleDouble cubeRoot = DoubleDouble.Cbrt(new DoubleDouble(-8.0));
 DoubleDouble distance = DoubleDouble.Hypot(new DoubleDouble(3.0), new DoubleDouble(4.0));
@@ -227,6 +241,9 @@ squares/powers of four. Square-root tests also bracket exact root-rounding midpo
 both suites exercise half-ulp low-component normalization boundaries.
 This is a tested approximate-accuracy contract, not exhaustive coverage
 of all component pairs or a guarantee of correctly rounded results.
+Square-root tests separately verify selected sparse output residuals with exact
+squared midpoint inequalities, including either low sign, dispatch neighbors,
+and corrections that become representable only after rescaling.
 
 Cube-root and nth-root tests check `2^-100` relative error for finite nonzero
 inputs with degree magnitude at least two. Small degrees use exact integer-power
@@ -306,6 +323,14 @@ sampled error bounds does not guarantee correct range decisions for every input.
 - `TryFormat(Span<char>, ...)` implements `ISpanFormattable` with the same formats.
   It currently allocates via `ToString`; insufficient space returns `false`, writes
   zero characters, and leaves the destination unchanged.
+- `ToStringExact()` emits the complete decimal expansion of the stored component
+  sum, without rounding, scientific notation, or unnecessary fractional zeros.
+  Unlike ordinary `ToString`, it always uses **invariant culture**. It preserves
+  negative zero and emits `NaN`, `Infinity`, or `-Infinity` for special values.
+  It allocates through exact integer arithmetic; sparse pairs can require over
+  a thousand characters. Use `DoubleDouble.Parse(text, CultureInfo.InvariantCulture)`
+  to recover the components. This is not a shortest-round-trip format and does not
+  change the standard formats' 999-digit precision limit or the parser's length limit.
 
 `DoubleDouble` implements `ISignedNumber<DoubleDouble>`, including the inherited
 `INumberBase` contracts: binary radix, classification, absolute value, magnitude
@@ -374,7 +399,7 @@ bool success = DoubleDouble.TryParse("1.25e-2".AsSpan(), CultureInfo.InvariantCu
 Natural `DDMath.Log`, the complete exponential family on `DoubleDouble`, and all
 three `DDMath.Pow` overloads are implemented.
 Logarithms in other bases, generic-math interfaces beyond `ISignedNumber`,
-`IFloatingPointConstants`, `IRootFunctions`, and `IExponentialFunctions`, additional text formats/general
+`IFloatingPointConstants`, `IRootFunctions`, and `IExponentialFunctions`, additional text formats/shortest-
 round-trip formatting, and non-arithmetic performance benchmarks remain deferred.
 Replacing allocating arithmetic boundary fallbacks is also deferred; the current
 `BigInteger` paths remain in place. That optimization does not require removing
@@ -400,6 +425,8 @@ on CI workflow runs.
 BenchmarkDotNet measures arithmetic throughput, dependent-chain latency, and allocations,
 including comparisons of `DoubleDouble`, `decimal`, and `double`, mixed scalar operations,
 and exponent-boundary paths. These are performance measurements, not accuracy tests.
+Squaring cases compare `DoubleDouble.Square(value)` with `value * value`; their
+presence is not evidence of a speedup.
 
 After the Release build above, run from the repository root: